Zinc has played a role in human history for thousands of years, though its nature as a distinct metal was not recognized until much later. From early brass-making practices to its critical role in modern industry, zinc’s journey has been one of discovery and innovation. This article explores the history of zinc, tracing its development from ancient uses to the advancements that led to its isolation and widespread application today.

Ancient Uses: The Earliest Applications of Zinc

The use of zinc dates back to prehistoric times, though early civilizations were unaware of its true nature. Instead, zinc was often encountered as part of the alloy brass, which combines copper and zinc. Archaeological findings suggest that Judean brass from as early as the 14th to 10th centuries BCE contained up to 23% zinc.

By the 7th century BCE, knowledge of brass-making had spread to Ancient Greece, though it remained a relatively rare material. Some artifacts, including ornaments with 80–90% zinc content and small amounts of lead, iron, and antimony, have been found dating back 2,500 years. Additionally, a possibly prehistoric statuette composed of 87.5% zinc was discovered in a Dacian archaeological site.

Greek historian Strabo, writing in the 1st century BCE, referenced earlier works that mentioned “drops of false silver,” likely referring to zinc by-products from smelting sulfide ores. However, since these remnants were considered worthless at the time, they were usually discarded.

By approximately 30 BCE, the Romans had developed the ability to manufacture brass deliberately. They achieved this by heating powdered calamine (a zinc silicate or carbonate) with charcoal and copper in a crucible. This calamine brass was then cast or hammered into various shapes, including weapons and coins. Some Roman coins from the Christian era appear to be made from calamine brass, further confirming their knowledge of the alloying process.

One of the oldest known medicinal uses of zinc dates to 140 BCE, with the discovery of zinc carbonate pills aboard the Roman ship Relitto del Pozzino. These pills were used to treat eye ailments and highlight zinc’s early pharmaceutical applications. Additionally, the Berne zinc tablet, a votive plaque from Roman Gaul, provides further evidence of zinc’s historical significance.

In ancient India, the Charaka Samhita, written between 300 and 500 CE, references a metal that produces pushpanjan (zinc oxide) when oxidized. Zinc mining in Zawar, near Udaipur, began during the Mauryan period (circa 322–187 BCE), but metallic zinc production appears to have started around the 12th century CE. Estimates suggest that between the 12th and 16th centuries, this location produced anywhere from 60,000 tonnes to over a million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide.

Early Studies and the Naming of Zinc

By the 14th century CE, zinc was recognized as a distinct metal under the name Yasada or Jasada in Indian medical texts. By the 13th century, Indian metallurgists had developed methods to extract impure zinc by reducing calamine with wool and organic substances. However, this knowledge did not reach China until the 17th century.

During the Renaissance, alchemists burned zinc metal in air, collecting the resulting zinc oxide on a condenser. Some alchemists referred to this zinc oxide as lana philosophica (“philosopher’s wool”) due to its wool-like appearance, while others called it nix album (“white snow”).

The Swiss-German alchemist Paracelsus was one of the first to document the name of the metal, referring to it as zincum or zinken in his 16th-century writings. The term likely originates from the German zinke, meaning “tooth-like” or “pointed,” a reference to zinc’s crystalline structure. Other theories suggest connections to the German word zinn (tin) or the Persian word seng (stone).

By the late 16th century, zinc was being imported into Europe from the East. German metallurgist Andreas Libavius described a shipment of what he called calay (possibly zinc) from Malabar, India, in 1596. European knowledge of zinc continued to expand, with increasing imports throughout the 17th and early 18th centuries.

Isolation of Zinc: The Path to Pure Metal

While India had successfully isolated metallic zinc by 1300 CE, the first known European attempts at isolation occurred in the 17th century. Flemish metallurgist P.M. de Respour extracted metallic zinc from zinc oxide in 1668, and by the early 18th century, Étienne François Geoffroy described how zinc oxide condensed into yellow crystals when bars of iron were placed above smelting zinc ore.

The first successful large-scale isolation of pure zinc is credited to German chemist Andreas Marggraf in 1746. By heating calamine with charcoal in a sealed vessel, he was able to produce zinc without the presence of copper. This technique laid the groundwork for commercially viable zinc production, which began around 1752.

Industrial Advancements and Zinc in the Modern Age

In 1738, British metallurgist William Champion patented a vertical retort-style smelter for extracting zinc from calamine. His process closely resembled those used at the Zawar mines in India, though there is no evidence that he had knowledge of them. Champion’s technique remained in use until 1851.

Further improvements in zinc smelting came with Johann Christian Ruberg’s development of the horizontal retort smelter in 1798, followed by Jean-Jacques Daniel Dony’s even more efficient horizontal smelter in Belgium.

Zinc also played a pivotal role in early electrical experiments. In 1780, Italian doctor Luigi Galvani discovered that connecting the spinal cord of a dissected frog to an iron rail via a brass hook caused the frog’s leg to twitch. This led to the discovery of “animal electricity” and ultimately influenced the invention of the galvanic cell. In 1800, Alessandro Volta expanded on Galvani’s work to create the Voltaic pile—the first true battery—using alternating plates of zinc and copper.

By the 20th century, zinc’s importance in biochemistry and nutrition became evident. In 1940, scientists discovered that carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme crucial for removing carbon dioxide from the blood, contained zinc in its active site. This finding marked the beginning of zinc’s recognition as an essential nutrient, a discovery reinforced in 1955 when another zinc-containing enzyme, carboxypeptidase, was identified.

Zinc Today and Beyond

Today, zinc is a crucial element in various industries, from galvanization to battery production, medicine, and agriculture. Its corrosion-resistant properties make it invaluable for coating steel, and its role in enzymatic reactions ensures its place as an essential dietary mineral.

The journey of zinc from its early use in brass-making to its modern applications underscores its significance in human history. As technology continues to advance, zinc’s role will likely expand further, shaping the future of multiple industries and scientific discoveries.

Zinc at CPT

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